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CULTURAL PERSPECTIVES ON CHILD REARING
Excerpt: The National CASA Volunteer Training Curriculum, Unit 3
Cultural Awareness
Author: National CASA
Conventional wisdom might lead one to believe
that child abuse and neglect would be easily identified regardless of
cultural boundaries. As one begins to explore the considerable
variation in child rearing beliefs and behaviors cross-culturally, however,
it becomes clear that there is not a universal standard for child rearing,
nor for child abuse and neglect. This presents a dilemma. If we
fail to allow for a cultural perspective in defining child abuse and
neglect, we find ourselves in the position in which our own set of cultural
beliefs and practices are presumed to be preferable, and in fact superior,
to another. At the same time, we cannot take the stance of accepting
inhumane treatment of children in the name of cultural sensitivity.
Culture, no matter whose it is, is never an excuse for hurting children, and
virtually all cultures have as a value that children may not be damaged.
In every culture, members of the community have a responsibility to
intervene when children are being hurt -- that's clear. However, what
behavior we label as abusive or neglectful, how we go about intervening, how
we understand the causes of problems, and what we do to help alleviate the
stresses, have much to do with our understanding of the family's culture and
what is normal or acceptable within that culture.
Western cultures consider, for example, the harsh initiation rites that
occur in other parts of the world as abusive. During such rites,
pre-adolescent boys may undergo genital operations, facial scaring,
beatings, and hazing by older members of the group. Sharp reeds are
used to induce bleeding of the tongue, nostrils, or urethra. They
sometimes are deprived of food or forced to vomit by inverting long canes
down their throats.
At the same time, many Western child rearing practices would be viewed as
equally abusive or neglectful by these same groups. Practices such as
isolating children in beds or rooms of their own at night, making children
wait for food when they are hungry, forcing young children to sit in a
classroom all day, or allowing infants to "cry themselves out" would seem
bizarre, exotic, and damaging as their behaviors seem to us.
Misinterpretation of physical trauma frequently results in inappropriate
intervention by authorities. Consider the following case:
It was reported to Child Protective Services
that a mother had cut the faces of her two young sons with a razor blade
and rubbed charcoal into the lacerations. The boys were removed from
her care and placed into foster care. She was prosecuted for child
abuse. However, the mother was a member of an East African tribe
that traditionally practices facial scaring. Her actions were simply
an attempt to assert the cultural identity of her children. Without
such markings, her boys would be unable to participate as adults in their
culture. A failure to assure one's children of such scars would thus
be viewed as neglectful or abusive within the cultural context of her
tribe.
Another example often misunderstood is the Vietnamese practice of "coin
rubbing" in which heated metal coins are pressed forcefully on the child's
body leaving bruises. This practice is a traditional curing technique
that is believed to reduce fevers, chills, and headaches. While
bruises are indeed inflicted, in this context it can hardly be defined as
child abuse.
From these examples, we can see that it is difficult to compare diverse
practices taken out of their cultural contexts. How would we explain
to the East African mother or the Vietnamese that their traditions are
abusive while orthodontic work, for example, in our culture is not only
acceptable but often desirable? All these practices inflict pain on
the child. However, viewed within their cultural contexts, they are
practices aimed at benefiting the child by making him or her physically
acceptable to other members of the culture.
Considerations When Working with
Immigrant Families
Children from immigrant families may find that their adaptation has a
chameleon quality. They may assimilate more quickly than their parents
into Western culture, thanks to the school system and peers. If the
parents are still rooted in their past patterns, the children may get caught
in the middle -- where their "new" behavior may look like rebellion.
They may find themselves unwilling to do things the old way and this can
include their parents' notion of "obedience."
When working with people who are new to your culture, there are a number of
unspoken elements that can significantly affect behavior. Consider
that they:
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Often are not able to relax or feel fully "at
home" here for a long time.
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May not have wanted to leave their homeland
but may have been forced to for political, religious, or economic reasons.
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May themselves be victims of oppression,
famine, torture, murdered or lost families, or other atrocities of war.
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May have been highly educated or held
professional standing in their own country but have not been able to
replicate that status here.
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May be learning English for the first time.
Hearing a new language, trying to understand it and constantly translating
in your head all day is exhausting and stressful.
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May be confused by tone of voice, gestures,
joking behavior, physical distance between people, customs around food or
drink, behavior with the opposite sex. Things we take for granted as
"communications" are not so obvious to newcomers.
When you work with people from
different cultures who have immigrated to this country, you may also find it
helpful to know that at any given time they are going through one or more of
the specific stages of acculturation to their new life. Carmen Colin
and Diane Johns, consultants on multicultural issues, define the four
phases/components of acculturation as follows:
The new arrival tries to become very
"Americanized." Wants to absorb all the fashions, foods, learn slang
and be very much a part of the American "in group." Their eager
willingness may sometimes be misunderstood as being "fresh" or "pushy."
Characterized by complete rejection of American
values. When "reality" strikes, the underside of the American dream
surfaces -- prejudice, rejection, inability to "fit in" easily lead to
natural feelings of hostility, anger, frustration, depression.
Gradual acculturation to American ways, with a
compromise of certain values and norms and an absorbing of others from the
American culture. More stability, satisfaction, and relaxation.
This element is threaded throughout the other
three stages and has to do with the physical process of adjusting to another
culture -- things having to do with hours of daylight, temperature, seasonal
shifts, noise level, quality of sound, etc.
Other Considerations When
Working with Minorities
Obviously, many of the minority
families we work with are not recent immigrants to this country. They
may be fully acculturated to this society, but maintain the values,
traditions, communication patterns, and child rearing practices of their
original cultures. Because gaps remain in the knowledge we have about
each other and the tolerance we have for those different from ourselves,
barriers exist which create the environment for inaccurate conclusions and
inappropriate decisions.
Consider this home visit summary written by a volunteer:
During the home visitation, I
observed that Billy did not have his own room and in fact had to share his
room with several other people. Billy's grandmother seemed to play
an overly important role in Billy's life and in fact it was she who
did the majority of parenting while I was there. When talking with
his grandmother, Billy never looked at her directly and always spoke with
a bowed head. It appeared that he was afraid of her and did not want
to get within arms reach. I observed in Billy's family some signs of
disrupted attachment in that Billy did not kiss or hug his grandmother
even though she had been away for several weeks. I also observed
that the living quarters did not adequately provide for Billy's need to
have a space of his own. I would therefore recommend that Billy's
stay in foster care continue and that supervised visitations continue
until the family can get more settled and provide for Billy's emotional
and physical needs.
Differences in child rearing styles
can also contribute to misinterpretations of neglect or inadequate
parenting. Many Western cultures believe that each child should have
his or her own bed, if not his or her own room. Many other cultures --
Hawaiian, Japanese, Native American, among others -- on the other hand,
believe that such a practice is detrimental to child development and
potentially dangerous. The assessment of whether or not an environment
is adequate must therefore take differences in the cultural context into
consideration.
It would be important, therefore, to know that Billy's family is Native
American. For Billy, it is normal to live in close quarters with other
family members. What the volunteer observed as chaotic was normal
family interaction. Billy's averted glance and lack of eye contact was
not from fear, but a sign of respect, and other expressions of affection by
his grandmother were more meaningful to him than hugs and kisses.*
Comparing this volunteer's conclusions with the reality of Billy's family
strikingly emphasizes the importance of understanding cultural differences.
There has to be a give-and-take on both sides in order to accomplish the
goal of making sure the children are safe and well cared for.
Education about how physical maltreatment is not acceptable in this country
and is against the law is one vital step in the process. CASA/GAL
volunteers have to learn that what they see might not be what they think
they see when dealing with families from other cultures. This means
that the system needs people who are familiar with the culture -- people who
can not only speak the language well enough to determine what's going on --
but who will also respect the differences and be able to accommodate them
when there is no chance of harm to a child.
Family matters are usually very private affairs and even the idea of talking
about them to an "outsider" can feel threatening and wrong. This is
one reason it's important that volunteers are able to communicate within the
terms of the culture and language. Trust must be developed.
Change takes time. To expect people to instantly change what may be,
in part, their basic system of belief, is not only unrealistic, it's
narrow-minded.
*Comprehensive Training for the CASA/GAL,
Unit 3: Cultural Awareness
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