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1. American Bar Association, The Impact of Domestic Violence on Children (1994) at 1-2.

2. Jann Jackson, "Intervention with Children Who Have Witnessed Abuse" (handout from Courts and Communities Confronting Violence in the Family conference) (1993), at 5-6.

3. Federal and state criminal laws concerning domestic violence also have indirect effects on children, but are beyond the scope of this article.

4. P.L. 103-322, 108 Stat. 1796 (1994).  see also Lisa M. Fitzgerald, The Violence Against Women Act: Is it an Effective Solution?, 1 How. Scroll 46 (1993).

5. Bridgit Schmidt Am Busch, "Domestic Violence and Title III of the Violence Against Women Act," 6 Hastings Women’s L. J. 1, 7 (1993).

6. Patricia Schroeder, "Stopping Violence Against Women Still Takes A Fight," 4 Journal of Law & Policy 377 (1996).

7. VAWA, 42 U.S.C. § 10410, 10417.

8.  See Charles Wheeler, "New Protections for Immigrant Women and Children Who Are Victims of Domestic Violence," Clearinghouse Review, Special Issue 1996, 223-24; Note, "Trapped in Domestic Violence: The Impact of United States Immigration Laws on Battered Immigrant Women," 6 B.U. Pub. Int. L.J. 589, 600-603 (1997). If deportation proceedings have already begun, VAWA also provides that the battered immigrant may petition for "cancellation of removal" to avoid being deported.

9. The Violence Against Women Act of 1998

10. Domestic Violence Prevention Act, Ca. Family Code §§ 6200 et seq.

11. See, e.g., Ca. Family Code § 6323.

12. These states include: Alaska (Alaska Stat. § 18.66.150), Arizona (Ariz Rev. Stat. § 13- 3602), Florida (Fla. Stat. Ann. § 741.30), Georgia (Ga. Code Ann. § 19-13-2), Indiana ( Ind. Code § 33-19-5-4), Missouri (Mo. Rev. Stat. § 488.610), Montana (Mont. Code Ann. § 25-1-201), Nebraska (Neb. Rev. Stat. § 42-924.01), North Dakota (§§12.1-31.2-01 & 14-07.1-03), New Mexico (N.M. Stat. Ann §40-13-6), Pennsylvania (42 Pa. Cons. Stat. §§ 1726.1-1726.2, also providing for state payment of physical exams and medications), Tennessee (amending Title 36, Chapter 3, Part 6), Wyoming (Wyo. Stat. Ann. § 35-21-103). See, generally, National Council of Juvenile and Family Court Judges, Family Violence Legislative Guide (1994, 1995, 1996) for review of trends in state legislation implementing VAWA.

13. These states include: Louisiana (La. Rev. Stat. Ann. §2136.1), Nevada (Nev. Rev. Stat. Chapter 33.050); Texas (Tex. Fam. Code Ann. § 81.002; the court can order payment by the batterer in Indiana); Louisiana’s law is very broad, requiring batterers to pay not only filing fees but also expert witness fees and counseling costs.

14. Okla. Stat. tit. 12, § 921.1, cited in 2 Family Violence Legislative Guide at 67.

15. Va. Code Ann. § 16.1-266.2, cited in 1 Family Violence Legislative Guide at 88.

16. See "Family Violence and Custody Codes," 43 Juv. & Fam. Ct. J. 29, 32 & n.227 (1992)

17. See V. Pualani Enos, "Recent Development: Prosecuting Battered Mothers: State Laws' Failure to Protect Battered Women and Abused Children," 19 Harv. Women's L.J. 229 (1996) (hereafter "Prosecuting Battered Mothers") for a discussion of the ways that judges’ biases may affect decision making under this type of statute.

18. ABA at 13.

19. See Hawaii Rev. Stat. § 571-46; La. Rev. Stat. Ann. § 9:364A; Nev. Rev. Stat. § 125.480; N.D. Cont. Code § 14-05-22.3; Mo. Rev. Stat. § 455.050.5; Okla. Stat. tit. 43, § 112.2; Wash. Rev. Code § 26.09.191(2)-(3). Cited in Barbara J. Hart, Family Violence and Custody Codes, 43 Juv. & Fam. Ct. J. 29, 32 & n.227 (1992); 1 Family Violence Legislative Guide at 19, 56; 2 Family Violence Legislative Guide at 39.

20. See Iowa Code Ann. § 598.41, cited in 1 Family Violence Legislative Guide at 39.

21. See Cal. Fam Code § 3020; Ga. Code Ann. § 19-9-7; Hawaii Rev. Stat. § 571-46; N.C. Gen. Stat. § 50-13.2.

22. "Developments In The Law -- Legal Responses To Domestic Violence: VI. Battered Women And Child Custody Decision making," 106 Harv. L. Rev. 1597, 1601 (1993) (hereafter Legal Responses to Domestic Violence)..

23. See, e.g., Iowa Code Ann. § 598.41; Tex. Fam. Code Ann. § 153.131. Cited in 1 Family Violence Legislative Guide at 39, 3 Family Violence Legislative Guide at 82.

24. California, for example, has a statute allowing abused parents to protect themselves from kidnapping charges by calling the district attorney’s office and stating that they have fled with a child to escape domestic violence. Ca. Penal Code § 278.7.

25. See Barbara J. Hart, Family Violence and Custody Codes, 43 Juv. & Fam. Ct. J. 29, 31- 32 & nn. 252-254 (1992).

26. This is provided for by the laws of, among others, California (Cal. Civ. Code § 4608(b)), Illinois (Ill. Ann. Stat. Ch. 3A § 112A-14(b)(5)), Michigan (Mich. Comp. Laws Ann. § 722.27(a)), Louisiana (La. Rev. Stat. Ann. § 9:364 (C)); cited in Hart, supra, at 29, 31-32 & nn. 252-254; Legal Responses to Domestic Violence, supra note 22, at 1614- 15.

27. Mo. Rev. Stat. § 455.050.6), cited in Hart, supra, at 31 & n.253.

28. Prosecuting Battered Mothers, supra note 17, at 252.

29. Legal Responses To Domestic Violence, supra note 22, at 1616 &n.146 (citations omitted).

30. ABA at 14.

31. See 2 Family Violence Legislative Guide at 47 (describing Kansas law).

32. Id. at 9.

33. Legal Responses to Domestic Violence, supra note 22, at 1602-3.

34. See Ala. Code § 6-6-20; Fla. Stat. Ann. § 44.102; Hawaii Rev. Stat. § 580-41.5; Iowa Code Ann. § 598.7A; Ky. Rev. Stat. § 403.036; 23 Pa. Cons. Stat., Part. IV, Ch. 39; Tenn. Code Ann. § 36-6-412, cited in 1 Family Violence Legislative Guide at 39; 2 Family Violence Legislative Guide at 20, 39, 50, 68; 3 Family Violence Legislative Guide at 33, 78.

35. Adoption and Safe Families Act of 1997, P.L. 105-89. See Grimm, "Adoption and Safe Families Act Brings Big Changes in Child Welfare," Youth Law News (Nov.-Dec. 1997).

36. Kristen Hays, "Foster Children Benefit from Accelerated System," Chicago Trib., March 5, 1998, at 8.

37. Grimm, supra note 35, at pp. 4-5.

38. Jane C. Murphy , "Legal Images Of Motherhood: Conflicting Definitions From Welfare 'Reform,' Family, and Criminal Law," 83 Cornell L. Rev. 688, 719 (1998).

39. Mary E. Becker , "Double Binds Facing Mothers in Abusive Families: Social Support Systems, Custody Outcomes, and Liability for Acts of Others," 2 U Chi L Sch Roundtable 13, & nn28-32 (1995).

40. Murphy, supra note 38, at 720 and 729 (citing Nancy S. Erickson, "Battered Mothers of Battered Children: Using Our Knowledge of Battered Women to Defend Them Against Charges of Failure to Act," in 1A Current Perspectives in Psychological, Legal, and Ethical Issues: Children and Families, Abuse and Endangerment 197, 200 (Sandra Anderson Garcia & Robert Batey lies., 1991)).

41. Murphy, supra, at 720; facts of cases are described at nn. 157-58.

42. Prosecuting Battered Mothers, supra note 17, at 229-30.

43. Nancy Hollander, ‘Bad’ Mothers: Modern Day Witches, The Champion, July 1993.

44. ABA at 17; see also Sheryl Howell, "How will battered women fare under the new welfare reform?" Berkeley Women's Law Journal (1997), at p. 144.

45. See Murphy, supra, at 711 (citing Judge Raymond Shawcross, Domestic Violence and Child Abuse: Mothers Charged With Failure to Protect, Remarks at the 58th Annual Conference of the National Council of Juvenile and Family Court Judges in Baltimore, Md. (July 9-12, 1995) (describing termination of parental rights cases in Michigan).

46. Bernardine Dohrn, "Bad Mothers, Good Mothers, and the State: Children on the Margins," 2 U Chi L Sch Roundtable 1 (1995).

47. Prosecuting Battered Mothers, supra note 17, at 244 (giving examples).

48. Cal. Welf. & Inst. Code §332, cited at 2 Family Violence Legislative Guide 29.

49. Alaska (Alaska Stat. § 47.17.035, Indiana ( Ind. Code § 5-2-9-2.1), New Hampshire, South Dakota (S.D. Codified Laws § 26-7A-107), or to require family services agencies to identify victims and those at risk for domestic violence (Oregon – Or. Rev. Stat. Ch. 411). 1 Family Violence Legislative Guide at 58; 2 Family Violence Legislative Guide at 24, 72; 3 Family Violence Legislative Guide at 39, 73.

50. Amending Ga. Code Ann. §§ 19-9-1 and 19-9-3. 1 Family Violence Legislative Guide at 34.

51. Amending Nev. Rev. Stat. Chapter 232). 3 Family Violence Legislative Guide at 59.

52. April Kaplan, Domestic Violence and Welfare Reform, http://www.welfareinfo.org/domesticissue.htm

53. Jody Raphael, "Prisoners of Abuse: Policy Implications of the Relationship between domestic violence and welfare receipt," Clearinghouse Review (Special Issue 1996); Jody Raphael & Richard Tolman, "Trapped by Poverty, Trapped by Abuse: New Evidence Documenting the Relationship between Domestic Violence and Welfare," Taylor Institute (April 1997); see also Catherine Kenney & Karen Brown, "Report from the Front Lines: The impact of violence on poor women,"(NOW Legal Defense & Education Fund, 1996).

54. Kenney & Brown, supra note 67, at 17-20; see also Melanie Shepard & Ellen Pence, "The Effect of Battering on the Employment Status of Women," Affilia, Vol. 3, No. 2 (Summer 1988), p. 55.569. Raphael & Tolman, supra note 55, at 25. Brown, "Report from the Front Lines: The impact of violence on poor women,"(NOW Legal Defense & Education Fund, 1996).

55. Ellen Bassuk, Angela Browne & John Buckner, "Single Mothers and Welfare," Scientific American (October 1996), p. 62; see also Raphael & Tolman, supra note 67.

56. Mark Courtney, "Welfare Reform and child welfare services," in Child Welfare in the Context of Welfare Reform, Sheila Kamerman & Alfred Kahn, lies. (Columbia U. School of Social Work, 1997).

57. Annette R. Appell, "Protecting Children or Punishing Mothers: Gender, Race, and Class in the Child Protection System," 48 S.C. L. Rev. 577, 584.

58. Sheryl Howell, "How Will Battered Women Fare Under the New Welfare Reform?" Berkeley Women's Law Journal (1997).

60. 42 U.S.C. § 654(27) and (29).

61. These states are: AL, AK, AZ, CO, DE, GA, HA, KY, LA, MD, MA, MN, MS, MO, MT, NV, NH, N J, NC, ND, PA, RI, UT, WA, WV and WY. Kaplan, supra note 52.

62. These states are: AR, CA, CT, FL, ID, IL, IN, IA, ME, MI, NM, OR, SC, SD, TN, TX, VA, and WI. Id.

63. Kaplan, supra note 52.

64. ME S.B. 407, P.L. 695 (1998).

65. Ellen Bassuk, Angela Browne & John Buckner, "Single Mothers and Welfare," Scientific American (October 1996), p. 62; see also Raphael & Tolman, supra note 67.

66. Mark Courtney, "Welfare Reform and child welfare services," in Child Welfare in the Context of Welfare Reform, Sheila Kamerman & Alfred Kahn, lies. (Columbia U. School of Social Work, 1997).

67. Annette R. Appell, "Protecting Children or Punishing Mothers: Gender, Race, and Class in the Child Protection System," 48 S.C. L. Rev. 577, 584.

58. Sheryl Howell, "How Will Battered Women Fare Under the New Welfare Reform?" Berkeley Women's Law Journal (1997).

55. Vicki Turetsky, Center for Law and Social Policy, Implementing the Family Violence Option: Lessons from Child Support "Good Cause" Policies (1997), http://www.handsnet.org/handsnet2/Articles/art.884367608.html

56. Wendy Pollack and Martha F. Davis, The Family Violence Option of the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996: Interpretation and Implementation, (1997).

57. IIRIRA, § 501(c) (amending § 431 of the PRWORA).

58. 8 U.S.C. §§ 1182a, 1255a.

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